During the golden age of Ancient Rome, few love stories captured imaginations quite like those of Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his wife Faustina II. As a leader in the second century, Marcus Aurelius ruled alongside Lucius Verus and had an impeccable reputation. Known to history as both a Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher, he simplified legal proceedings, kept taxes fair, and helped those in need. His writings, collected in what's known as the "Meditations," led people to call him simply the "Philosopher."
Yet while Marcus Aurelius walked a path of virtue, his wife Faustina the Younger (formally Annia Galeria Faustina) blazed a trail of controversy throughout Rome. The Roman elite whispered tales of her cruel and sometimes scandalous behavior, yet the philosopher-king humbly accepted her as she was. Not once did he publicly reproach her during her lifetime. Instead, he only spoke of her with unwavering respect and, after her death, convinced the Senate to deify her name — an act that would echo throughout history.
Past perspectives
The story of Marcus Aurelius's wife, or as she was better known, Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger, is interwoven into the fabric of Roman history. As the daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius and Faustina the Elder (Faustina I), she carried the weight of imperial legacy from birth as she was their only daughter to live to adulthood. Through a fascinating twist of fate, she would marry her cousin and adopted brother, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, after he lost their father.
Nerva–Antonine family tree
The dynasty founded by Nerva, better known as the Nerva-Antonine dynasty, gave rise to what historians would later call the "Five Good Emperors," which lasted between 96 and 192 AD. Instead of passing power to their children, emperors chose and adopted their successors. Nerva adopted Trajan, the only Roman emperor not born in Italy, and expanded the empire to its most significant dimensions. From there, Hadrian followed Trajan's path, Antoninus Pius succeeded Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, once known as Marcus Annius Verus, inherited the mantle from Antoninus Pius and married Faustina the Younger.
This carefully orchestrated succession process worked remarkably well until Marcus Aurelius broke the tradition. As fate would have it, Marcus had two potential heirs: alongside his brother Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar was named successor Caesar on October 12, 166 AD. However, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar passed away in 169 AD. This tragedy left Commodus as the sole heir and last representative of the dynasty, and his reign later became synonymous with the beginning of the empire's decline.
Marriage to Marcus Aurelius
Faustina came from the imperial family of the Aurelius Antonines; her father was Caesar Antonius Pius Augustus, and her mother was Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder. According to citations from William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, life had other plans for Faustina.
Though initially betrothed to Aelius Caesar's son, Lucius Verus, the match was dissolved partly due to his youth. So, in the spring of 145, she married Marcus Aurelius instead. After her father's death, Faustina stood beside her husband as he assumed the mantle of Augustus, and the Senate honored her with the title of Augusta.
The role of women
In Roman history, women enjoyed relative freedom — they could participate in society, visit others, and attend receptions. However, in ancient Rome, women were primarily confined to their families and led very different lives from their husbands, especially concerning their occupations and leisure activities. Despite these legal norms, women exerted significant influence on society. They were revered as mothers of the family and respected by both their children and husbands.
Some women found creative ways to influence society. Faustina the Elder, wife of Antoninus Pius, established the "Girls of Faustina," a program that educated young Roman women and supported orphans. Her daughter, Faustina the Younger, expanded this work across the empire.
Faustina and Marcus Aurelius had thirteen children, but only four survived past childhood. Among these survivors were Commodus, who would later rule as Roman Emperor, and their daughter Lucilla, who later became involved in a major conspiracy against her brother.
The life and reign of emperor Marcus Aurelius
Early life and education
Born on April 26, 121 AD, in Rome, Marcus Aurelius hailed from a distinguished Roman family. His paternal grandfather, Marcus Annius Verus, served as a consul and prefect of Rome, while his maternal grandmother was an heiress to a vast fortune. This illustrious lineage ensured that young Marcus was destined for social distinction from early on.
Marcus Aurelius received a comprehensive education in both Greek and Latin, with a particular emphasis on Stoic philosophy. His intellectual development benefited from the guidance of several esteemed tutors, including Herodes Atticus, a renowned Greek orator, and Marcus Cornelius Fronto, a highly respected Latin tutor. Fronto, second only to Cicero in the Latin literary world, played a significant role in shaping Marcus's literary and philosophical outlook. Marcus Aurelius also thanked Alexander of Cotiaeum for his influence on his literary training, acknowledging the significant impact on his writing style and philosophical approach. The influence of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters, further enriched his education, preparing him for the responsibilities ahead.
Accession to the throne
Marcus Aurelius ascended to the throne in 161 AD following the death of his adoptive father, Antoninus Pius. He shared the mantle of leadership with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, marking a rare instance of co-emperorship in Roman history. While Lucius Verus embraced the luxuries of imperial life, Marcus Aurelius approached his role with philosophical dedication, having already proven his capabilities as consul in 140, 145, and 161 AD.
His marriage to Annia Galeria Faustina, the daughter of Antoninus Pius, in 145 AD further solidified his position within the imperial family. By 147 AD, Marcus acquired the imperium and tribunicia potestas, the primary formal powers of emperorship. Known for his fairness and commitment to justice, Marcus Aurelius was a skilled administrator and lawyer whose statesmanship, though sometimes critiqued, was marked by a genuine dedication to the well-being of the Roman Empire.
Faustina's influence and role in the Roman Emperor's court
Life changed dramatically for Faustina the Younger when she received the title of Augusta in 147 AD, following the birth of her first child, a daughter named Domitia.
During her lifetime and posthumously, Faustina was depicted on various coins alongside her husband, Marcus Aurelius, underscoring their partnership and the stability of their reign. Today, these ancient treasures, along with beautiful marble statues of the empress, can be found in prestigious institutions like the British Museum and The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
Additionally, historical records indicate that Faustina actively participated in Marcus Aurelius's military campaigns, accompanying him to various Roman provinces and Syrian and Egyptian territories. Chroniclers also note her significant authority among military personnel and soldiers, as she was even nicknamed the "Mother of the Camps" following a crucial victory over the Quadi in the Pannonian campaign. However, this period of her life would also bring controversy through her connection with Avidius Cassius.
The Avidius Cassius Affair
In a dramatic turn of events, Faustina became entangled with Avidius Cassius, the governor of Syria, who declared himself emperor in Egypt. The timing seemed calculated as Marcus Aurelius had fallen ill, his health fragile since childhood. Yet when her husband recovered, she feared Avidius Cassius would tell everyone about his conversations with her. Desperate to protect herself, she began sending urgent letters to Marcus Aurelius, calling for Cassius's execution. One particularly revealing citation from Vulcatius Gallicanus captures her desperate plea:
"I shall come to our Alban villa tomorrow, as you command. Yet I urge you now, if you love your children, to punish those rebels with all severity. For soldiers and generals have an evil habit of crushing others if they are not crushed themselves."
Philanthropic and cultural contributions
Emperor Marcus Aurelius was not only a formidable leader but also a patron of the arts and culture. Visitors to Rome today can still see his influence in buildings like the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina.
While he supported education and philosophy throughout the empire, his most lasting impact came through his writing. "Meditations" is a collection of his personal writings and reflections that provides an intimate glimpse into how a ruler thought about leadership and life. He wrote it in Greek during quiet moments between military campaigns.
Marcus Aurelius was revered as a just and fair ruler, beloved by his people. His leadership was characterized by a strong defense of the Roman Empire against external threats and a compassionate administration that sought to improve the lives of his citizens. His legacy as a wise and empathetic leader continues to inspire and influence people to this day, cementing his place as one of history's most respected Roman emperors.
Controversies and scandals
Roman gossip claimed that Faustina was constantly unfaithful to her husband, Emperor Marcus Aurelius. She allegedly had affairs with senators, soldiers, sailors, and gladiators. The historian Sextus Aurelius Victor openly wrote about how the emperor's wife publicly, without any embarrassment, seduced muscular sailors working in the ports. Also, historical evidence has survived to this day, which tells that Faustina seduced some prominent senators, gladiators, and pantomime actors. Moreover, according to Cassius Dio, many ancient contemporaries accused the emperor's wife not only of adultery but even of murder.
The situation grew particularly tense when Faustina reportedly began relationships with members of the highest aristocracy. Historical accounts suggest she even had an affair with Lucius Verus despite his marriage to her daughter.
Attitude of Marcus Aurelius
Despite countless advisors bringing tales of his wife's indiscretions, Marcus Aurelius refused to believe any of them. According to Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius found his wife on his bed with a gladiator one day. It further states that Faustina could not do anything other than burst into tears and confess everything to her husband, pointing out that the gods had taken possession of her mind and body.
When Marcus Aurelius faced the question of whether to divorce or execute his wife, he replied:
"If I divorce my wife, I must return her dowry. And what else could be considered a dowry if not the imperial power over Rome, which I received from my father-in-law, being adopted by him by the will of Hadrian?"
Their son Commodus grew up and even began participating in gladiator fights. Some whispered that he wasn't truly the son of Marcus Aurelius but rather of the same gladiator lover with whom Faustina allegedly had relations.
Her death and legacy after Marcus Aurelius died
The final chapter of Faustina's life unfolded far from the splendor of Rome in the harsh winter of 175 AD. The empress drew her last breath at a military camp in Halala, nestled in the Taurus mountains of Cappadocia (modern-day Turkey). After her death, Marcus Aurelius perpetuated her memory by claiming she was a deified mortal. Her final resting place lies in Hadrian's Mausoleum (Castle of the Holy Angel) in Rome, and a temple exists in tribute to her.
When Marcus Aurelius himself passed away on March 17, 180 CE, it marked not just the end of his reign but the conclusion of the Pax Romana. His death in Vindobona led to the succession of their son Commodus, which had significant impacts on the Roman Empire.
Even after Faustina's death, Marcus Aurelius continued to honor her memory through a specially minted series of gold and silver coinage. He also never remarried, choosing instead to live with her memory. Even in "Meditations," he spoke warmly about his life partner. He shared his views on life with readers: "Love that only which happens to thee and is spun with the thread of thy destiny. For what is more suitable?" and "Never regard something as doing you good if it makes you betray a trust or lose your sense of shame or makes you show hatred, suspicion, ill-will or hypocrisy or a desire for things best done behind closed doors."
Connection to Stoicism and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus
Marcus Aurelius wrote a letter that displayed the depth of his devotion to the teacher of rhetoric and his friend Fronto:
"The tribute to my Faustina...I'd rather live with her on the prison island of Gyara than on the Palatine without her..."
Despite pressure from those around him, Marcus Aurelius refused to abandon his wife. His loyalty stemmed not just from personal feelings but from respect for his adoptive father, Antoninus Pius, who had blessed their union.
In the early letters between Fronto and Marcus referring to her, there was an utter absence of jealousy in either or any cause for jealousy from him. Marcus wrote about their thirteen children and their common griefs. In one letter, the emperor described the coins that bear her effigy, with the words Felicitas (Happiness), Hilaritas (Hilarity), Concordia (Agreement), Pudicitia (Chastity), and Laetitia Publica (Public joy), reflecting Faustina's significance and the virtues associated with her.
From a man known for his Stoic restraint, these words speak volumes about their firm and trusting marital relationship. Together, they faced tremendous grief, losing several children and weathering personal struggles, which seemed only to bring them closer.
The French historian Ernest Renan described Marcus's attitude toward his wife as showing 'inexorable gentleness.' The ideal of the Stoics is the ideal of the sage: the sage is blessed, free, prosperous, happy, knows everything and has all the virtues. Despite his position of power, Marcus Aurelius believed in showing compassion and empathy toward others and his wife, accepting fate, and acknowledging what is within control. He wrote in "Meditations":
"Adapt yourself to the life you have been given; and truly love the people with whom destiny has surrounded you."
The historical figure of Faustina the Younger
While Faustina's reputation for being carefree and sometimes scandalous follows her through the ages, her actions reveal a woman who defied the conventions of her time. Unlike most Roman noblewomen, she chose to accompany her husband on military campaigns, demonstrating bravery and equality as she asserted her title alongside her husband until she died in one of those campaigns. However, direct evidence for such involvement is sparse and primarily based on the symbolic importance of her presence.
Her influence on the Roman Empire extended far beyond her lifetime. Through the Avidius Cassius rebellion and her son Commodus's controversial reign, the ripples of her life choices would continue to shape Roman history long after she was gone.
Explore "Meditations" on the Headway app
Are you intrigued by ancient wisdom, how Marcus Aurelius handled personal trials, and the challenges of ruling an empire? Through his writings, Marcus Aurelius offers a treasure trove of timeless insights about power, love, and human nature. To explore more about this Stoic philosopher-emperor, we recommend diving into "Meditations" on the Headway app, where his ancient wisdom comes alive in a way that can apply to your life.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who was Marcus Aurelius' son?
Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus (August 31, 161, Lanuvio - December 31, 192, Rome) was the last emperor of the Antonine dynasty. Named after his father's co-ruler, Lucius Verus, Commodus would ultimately shape the empire's future in ways his father never intended.
Why did Marcus Aurelius choose Commodus to rule after him?
While Marcus Aurelius became the first emperor since Vespasian to have legitimate biological sons, only Commodus survived to adulthood. The emperor's death during a plague-stricken campaign left Commodus as the sole heir to the Roman Empire.
Was Marcus Aurelius' wife unfaithful?
Despite historical accounts and rumors suggesting that Faustina might have been unfaithful, the accuracy of these accounts is highly debated among contemporary and modern historians.
Most of these rumors come from the Historia Augusta, a collection of imperial biographies known for favoring scandal over accuracy. While the text accused Faustina of various affairs and misconduct, one thing remains clear: Marcus Aurelius stayed devoted to his wife despite what anyone said about her.
